Starinar

Primary tabs

Pages

Ceramic crustulum with the representation of Nemesis-Diana from Viminatium
Ceramic crustulum with the representation of Nemesis-Diana from Viminatium
The analysis of iconographic representation from ceramic medallion/cast for cakes (crustulum) from Viminatium showed that we are dealing with a very rare type of iconographic representation of goddess Nemesis-Diana. The monuments with syncretistic presentation of goddess Nemesis-Diana are not only very rare, but they imply a very close connection of the goddess with imperial cult and with games and gladiator fights in amphitheatre. Overview and analysis of all so far known cult monuments of goddess Nemesis, opened a question about the correlation of goddess and presumed amphitheatre in Viminatium and also a question about new aspect of honouring Nemesis in the territory of Roman provinces of Central Balkans - as a patroness of agonistic competitions and protectress of gladiatorial games and gladiators. [Projekat Ministarstva nauke Republike Srbije, br. 177007: Romanization, urbanization and transformation of urban centres of civil, military and residential character in Roman provinces on territory of Serbia]
Chipped stone projectiles in the territory of Serbia in prehistory
Chipped stone projectiles in the territory of Serbia in prehistory
The projectiles are the least abundant group and the least known segment of the chipped stone artifacts in the prehistory of Serbia. In this work we studied all specimens known and available so far from the literature and/or in museum collections. We carried out the analysis of morphotechnical characteristics and defined basic types and their general dating.
Coins of the Bithynian mint of Nicaea from the Viminacium necropolis of Pećine
Coins of the Bithynian mint of Nicaea from the Viminacium necropolis of Pećine
During the large-scale archaeological rescue investigations of the southern necropolises of Viminacium, at one of them, Pećine, 170 specimens of coins of the Bithynian mint of Nicaea were discovered. Of these specimens, 83 were found in the graves, and 87 in the layer at the necropolis. The largest number of them belongs to the emissions of Severus Alexander and Gordian III. Compared to the necropolis of Više grobalja, where 290 specimens of Nicaean coinage were found, the finds from the necropolis of Pećine appear in a smaller percentage. [Project of the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development, Grant no. 47018: IRS - Viminacium, roman city and military legion camp - research of material and non-material culture of inhabitants by using the modern technologies of remote detection, geophysics, GIS, digitalization and 3D visualization]
Composition and texture of a set of marvered glass vessels from 12th century ad Braničevo, Serbia
Composition and texture of a set of marvered glass vessels from 12th century ad Braničevo, Serbia
Strongly coloured glass vessels decorated with marvered threads of white glass are a wide-spread and popular, but rarely studied group of high-quality glassware of medieval Islamic origin. Relatively little is known about the composition and production places of these vessels, and their chronological range is not very well defined, as many of the published finds lack contextual evidence. Here, we present detailed chemical and microstructural data on a set of well-dated purple glass vessels decorated with white threads, excavated at the Mali Grad site in Braničevo, Serbia, in an archaeological context dated to the middle/second half of the 12th century AD. The set comprises at least sixteen different vessels, manufactured from two different batches of probably Levantine plant-ash glass coloured by manganese oxide. Significantly, the results demonstrate that these batches are correlated to particular vessel shapes. The base glass of the white threads is comparable to that of the purple vessel glass, but instead of being coloured by added manganese oxide, it contains considerable amounts of tin and lead oxides which provide the effect of opacity and white colour. No difference in composition can be seen between the white glass threads used to decorate the vessels from the two different manganese-coloured batches, thus indicating a likely common production origin of the whole set. [Project of the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development, Grant no. 177021: Urbanization Processes and Development of Medieval Society]
Contextualising bow fibulae with Boeotian shield plates
Contextualising bow fibulae with Boeotian shield plates
Despite the fact that double-looped fibulae with catch-plates in the form of a Boeotian shield have been frequently discussed, it is worthwhile examining the type again from a supra-regional perspective. The following paper, therefore, has two aims. First, the typo-chronological development of the fibulae with catch-plates in the form of a Boeotian shield within the Central Balkan area is considered. The second part of the paper focuses on the processes of the spread of the fibula type. The question is raised as to what extent local elites - integrated in supra-regional networks - could have functioned as transmitters and agents in the processes of cultural transfer.
Copper minerals and archaeometallurgical materials from the Vinča culture sites of Belovode and Pločnik
Copper minerals and archaeometallurgical materials from the Vinča culture sites of Belovode and Pločnik
The Vinča culture sites of Belovode and Pločnik have been attracting scholarly attention for decades now, due to numerous discoveries indicative of copper mineral and metal use in these settlements, which are confirmed as, currently, the earliest worldwide and very likely developed independently in Eurasia.1 The authors attempt to give an overview of already published data along with new results stemming from the recently completed doctoral research of the primary author.2 All materials related to copper mineral use and pyrometallurgical activities are presented through the concept of metallurgical chaîne opératoire, following the established sequence of operations,3 which is adjusted for this specific case study and divided into three categories: copper mineral processing, (s)melting debris, and the making and working of finished metal objects. The qualitative overview of available data is therefore focused mainly around the material side of the studied samples and provides an insight into the technological choices for making copper mineral ornaments and copper metal artefacts in the sites of Belovode and Pločnik. Accordingly, it provides a model for the understanding of similar material assemblages that occur in other Vinča culture sites, or beyond. [Projekat Ministarstva nauke Republike Srbije, br.177012: Society, spiritual and material culture and communications in the prehistory and early history of the Balkans]
Copper processing in Vinča
Copper processing in Vinča
Abundant hand written documentation from excavations of Vinča (1908–1934) offers sufficient evidence that confirms the thesis established by investigator of Vinča M. M. Vasić himself that Vinča was metallurgical center. After comparing these data with the finds related to early copper processing on other sites of the central Balkans (Belovode, Pločnik, Gornja Tuzla, Fafos, Selevac) it could be assumed that Vinča culture was acquainted with metallurgy from its very outset. This assumption is supported by similar finds from other sides of the world (Tymna, Chinflon, Batán Grande) and even more so the results of experimental copper processing.
Coţofeni-Kostolac culture on the territory of north-eastern Serbia
Coţofeni-Kostolac culture on the territory of north-eastern Serbia
The settlement of the territory of north-eastern Serbia by the representatives of the Coţofeni culture began during the second half of the IV millennium, probably under the pressure of invading tribes from Euroasian steppe. This territory extended over Transylvania, Banat, Oltenia and Muntenia (Map 2). On the territory of Serbia they settled from the Djrerdap gorge up to the Mlava river to the west, and through Kučajske mountains, Bor, Zaječar and further to the south, up to Niš. Aspecific symbiosis occurred on the territory of Serbia between the Coţofeni and the Kostolac cultures. According to the results of the latest project of re-identification, the number of Coţofeni-Kostolac sites and settlements increased to 76. After all the sites were re-identified and georeferenced, with consideration of the surrounding landscape, hydrography, geomorphology of the terrain and the character of the ceramic production finds, we believe that there is a need for re-analyzing specific aspects of the cultural and geographic development not only of settlements, but of the entire Coţofeni-Kostolac cultural phenomenon. In this paper we considered three archaeological sites in the Nišava valley, given that re-identification work over the past several years yielded new information (Bubanj-Staro Selo, Velika Humska čuka and Donja Vrežina). The topography of Coţofeni-Kostolac settlements on the territory of north-eastern Serbia, the Serbian part of the Danube valley and its hinterland, is characterized by diversity of position (location above sea level and landscape placement), types of houses and economic survival. In the 70’s of the last century sites were identified that are located in very inaccessible terrain, which in particular cases has an slope incline of 45°, where the number of such settlements in the meantime increased to nine. They are represented by Kulmja Škjopuluji in Klokočevac and Pjatra Kosti in Crnajka (T. I/1-2; Map 1/9), followed by Vratna -Veliki most (T. I/ 7; Map 1/33), Bogovina-above a cave (T. I/ 4; Map 1/8), Jezero (T. I/ 3; Map 1/12), Kljanc (T. I/3; Map 1/11), Turija-Stenje (T. I/ 6; Map 1/22), Mokranjske stene-quarry (T. I/ 5; Map 1/39) and Bolvan (T. I/ 8; Map 1/66). These settlements have several other common elements, the most important being that each one of the elevated settlements is positioned on the rocky peak of a canyon, in places where smaller rivers or brooks flow into a larger river. We can suppose how the selection of such positions was of strategic importance, given that in the mountainous area of north-eastern Serbia the system of waterways and river valleys represents communicational links from prehistory to modern times. The second common characteristic of these settlements is the rocky massif which provided the foundation for their erection. The rock foundation in the majority of cases is of limestone origin and is well suited to artificial nivelation into terraces atop which surface structures could be built using wood covered with mud (Jezero, Kulmja Škjopuluji, Pjatra Kosti, Vratna, Bogovina). The third shared characteristic is that one or more caves are usually located in the immediate vicinity of settlements. An example of the symbiosis of cave and hill fort Coţofeni-Kostolac settlements is the vicinity of the Zavojsko jezero near Majdanpek. So far two hill fort settlements, Jezero and Kljanc (T. I/3; Map 1/11-12), were identified in this area, built on limestone cliffs above the Mali Pek river. The Rajkova cave (Map 1/14), Paskova cave and Kapetanova cave (Map 1/13) are located in their immediate vicinity, in which the remains of anthropogenic activity were discovered. The Kapetanova cave provides stratigraphy of over 3 m high, which represents a rare case for Coţofeni-Kostolac cultural sites. This fact does not only indicate its long-term use, but could provide the answer to the genesis and duration of this cultural phenomenon on the territory of the Serbian part of the Djerdap hinterland. The fourth shared characteristic which links these settlements is their dominant position in the landscape. Given that their position and appearance are readily visible from a considerable distance, they probably were not used for hiding, but for making their position prominent. We suppose that pastoral communities emphasized in this manner their control of mountain crosspass and roads, particularly in places where rivers exit narrow canyons in important communications paths to the Crni and Beli Timok, Pek and Danuber rivers. The other Coţofeni-Kostolac type settlement on the territory of north-eastern Serbia is represented by settlements that are positioned on smaller hills or on gentle slopes that on the average range between 336 and 210 m above sea level. The only fortified hill fort settlement discovered so far, Čoka lu Balaš near Krivelj (Map 1/3) belongs to this group. The archaeological sites Velika Čuka i Neresnica (Map 1/23), Smiljkova glavica in Štubik (Map 1/31) and Ćetaće in Kovilovo (Map 1/38) are located on wide and flat, elevated plateaus that dominate up on river valleys. Judging by the considerable surface that they occupy, their position and surroundings for these two settlements, we can suppose that they could have been used for wintering places or points for gathering of flocks and shepherds during pauses between seasonal migrations. They are primarily characterized by the natural surroundings of smaller hills and larger river valleys, as well as the relatively low above sea level elevation on which they are located. Such “seasonal stations or checkpoints” on which larger groups of shepherds could gather with their flocks during the winter months represented important locations in the lives of pastoral communities. During the warm summer period, homesteads with stable architecture are abandoned because of migrations into mountain areas, where favourable grazing areas area located. Certain groups of shepherds during autumn returned to these settlements en route to lowlands and river terraces, while other groups probably continued their journey to gathering centres in valleys near the Danube and the Timok rivers. The next type of settlement belongs to high, multi-layered settlements (Arija baba-Košobrdo, Čoka Kormaroš, Field of Z. Brzanović, Varzari and Smedovac-Grabar-Svračar) which represent sunbathed dominant positions, with a good view of the surrounding area, well suited to long-term occupation. Settlements on high elevations of this type are usually linked with landscapes that predominate in grazing areas and in which there are no large forests. The last type of Coţofeni-Kostolac settlement is characteristic of lowland settlements positioned on river terraces. The settlements on the right bank of the Danube, around Ključ (Kladovo- Brodoimpeks, Mala Vrbica, Zbradila-Fund, Korbovo- Obala, Vajuga-Pesak, Jakomirski potok estuary, Velesnica, Ljubič evac-river bank, Ljubičevac-Island, Brzi prun, Slatinska reka estuary, Knjepište, Ruženjka, Kusjak-Bordjej, Kusjak-Motel, Kusjak-Vrkalj), represented points at which shepherd’s flocks could remain for longer periods, waiting for favourable conditions for crossing to the other side of the river. This assumption is based on old maps predating the construction of the accumulation lake. These maps indicate that in the immediate vicinity of these settlements were located small sand islands linked to the river bank, pointing to shallows and crossing points. These sections of the river bank, during prolonged droughts or during cold winters, when ice was formed, could have been places where the river was crossed from one side to the other. Residential architecture cannot be precisely defined, given that the discovered remains of houses are very meagre and lack sufficient elements for reconstruction. The most recent excavations on the Bubanj-Staro Selo settlemant at Niš, indicate an identical type of architectural construction as discovered at Gomolava and Bordjej which represents structures that are characteristic for lowland areas. Houses in hill fort settlements built on artificial terraces have been mostly devastated by erosion, so that judging by the impressions of wooden structures and wattle and daub, as well as the remains of hearths, it can be asserted that these were residential structures. Numerous studies so far noted that based on the stylistic and typological characteristics of ceramics on archaeological sites in Timočka Krajina it is possible to distinguish between two phases of the Coţofeni group, where the first is dominated by ornamental techniques of carving that are characteristic of the Coţofeni group, and a later phase in which this style is mixed with the furchenstich, as well as other Kostolac cultural elements (furchenstich, certain types of ceramics, etc.). The fact is that the majority of Coţofeni-Kostolac group sites in eastern Serbia have not been excavated, or have only been partially excavated, and that no vertical stratigraphy had been observed, where no stratigraphic relationship between stylistic-topological characteristics of older ceramics (Coţofeni) and the more recent phase (Coţofeni-Kostolac) have been established. These are mostly settlements in which ceramics were observed with elements both of the Kostolac and the Coţofeni group, or only with elements of the Coţofeni group, while settlements with only Kostolac ceramics have not been identified. Therefore, in Serbia it is only possible to distinguish between sites where furchenstich ornamentation has been observed and those where this type of ornamentation still has not been observed. Still, it is unclear whether this distinction can be applied to period assignment, or whether it is in fact caused by settlement of different populations in different regions of Eastern Serbia - the Kostolac region from the west and the Coţofeni group from the East. In Romania, however, vertical stratigraphy was observed at several settlements where development phases were observed of the Coţofeni group, so that based on the stratigraphy at those sites, with certain caution, it is possible to draw conclusions about the development of the Coţofeni-Kostolac group in eastern Serbia. Settlements without any furchenstich ornamentation would be assigned to the older phase (Coţofeni group) where ceramics characteristic of the Coţofeni group have been observed, although observed shapes and ornaments are usually associated with the furchenstich technique and the more recent phase of the group. The most frequent type of vessels at sites in eastern Serbia are amphorae with extended funnel shaped necks, ornamented below the neck with carved lines or with stamped ornamentation (fig. 6, 21, 38, 64, 71, 89, 98-100, 104, 109, 115, 116, 134), fishbone shape impressions (fig. 4, 28), and in the more recent period furchenstich ornamentation or point impressions (fig. 9, 20, 25, 140), with a tongue shaped or vertically perforated handle, tunnel shaped or horse-shoe shaped handle below the rim (fig. 6, 9, 20, 21, 51, 63, 100, 126, 134, 88, 115 ). The second characteristic type of vessel are semi-spherical bowls with deeper recipients, with flat rims (fig. 11, 12, 23, 27, 29, 52-54, 57, 59-60, 74, 79, 81, 82, 90, 91, 95, 113, 124, 125, 131 and 145), or with shallower recipients, with a slanted, triangular rim or T-shaped profiled rim (14, 19, 133 and 146). Such vessels are characteristic for both phases, because they are ornamented, besides vertical ribs, with carves, and with furchenstich ornamentation (fig. 23, 68, 81 and 82). The third type of vessels are semi-spherical bowls with contracted rims creating a nearly spherical shape. They can be ornamented with vertical ribs on rims (fig. 148) in combination with pinholes (fig. 17), carves (fig. 61, 84, 85) or line impressions (fig. 132). Less frequent vessels on the territory of northeastern Serbia are biconical or spherical goblets, followed by pare-shaped goblets with a single handle, larger pare-shaped amphorae with an extended or conical neck, with small handles below the rim, ornamented with a series of carves (fig. 39, 86), as well as barrel or spherical pots ornamented with carves, horizontal tapes or circular impressions (fig. 45-47, 141, 142). The appearance of ropeshape ornaments is very significant, given that they appear in Rumanian finds in the second phase of the Coţofeni group, and most frequently in the third phase. This ornament was sporadically observed in the far south, on the Dikili Taš site on the northern shore of the Aegean sea, in level 6, which according to the author belongs chronologically to the Bubanj-Hum II group and the Kostolac group. Its presence at sites in eastern Serbia can be linked to the older phase at the majority of settlements, except in the case of Grabar-Svračar, as these ceramics were not found alongside ceramics with furchenstich. The largest number of sites with only Coţofeni elements on ceramics have been observed (34), but it is indicative that only a few have been excavated. 28 sites with Kostolac group elements were noted, while 17 unspecified sites in which the period cannot be precisely defined have been identified. According to the stratigraphy of several of the mentioned sites in western Bulgaria, in the Morava valley and in southern Romania it can be concluded that the Coţofeni group (northeastern Serbia and Romania) and the Coţofeni-Kostolac group (Morava valley and western Bulgaria), in all of the mentioned regions, was preceded by the Černavoda III group, and was superseded by the Vučedol culture and the Bubanj-Hum II group in the Morava valle and the Struma valley, and the Glina II-Schnekenber group in Oltenija and the territory of Transylvania and the southern Carpathians. Analysis of the distribution of settlements and stylistictopological characteristics of ceramics from all of the settlements led to the conclusion that the oldest settlements, without ceramics with furchenstich ornamentation, were established in Ključ in Negotinska Krajina, leading to the assumption that the representatives of the Coţofeni group came from Oltenia and from the southern Carpathians. A large number fo sites west of Ključ, along the Danube, at which ceramics with furchenstich ornamentation were noted, point to the direction of expansion of Kostolac elements, from Banat, Branicevo and Stig. The influence of the Kostolac group was very strong starting in the Coţofeni II phase, even in Romanian sites, given that in Transylvania and in the southern Carpathians a large number of ceramic finds were found with furchenstich ornamentation, while it is interesting that only sporadic appearances were noted in Oltenia. It is clear that Coţofeni group settlements represented a certain barrier to the expansion of these elements to the east. With the formation of the Coţofeni-Kostolac group which was created through contacts between representatives of the Coţofeni to the east and the representatives of the Kostolac group to the west and north-west a short period of coexistence occurred on this territory. Absolute dating of the chronological framework of the Coţofeni-Kostolac group in the Danube valley and in eastern Serbia can only be assigned indirectly, as there is no carbon dating available from these sites. According to J. Bojačijev, phase II-III of the Coţofeni group (4400-4300 bp) can be assigned chronologically approximately to the same period as the Kostolac group (4500-4100 bp), and if we suppose that the Coţofeni-Kostolac group occurred a little while after the occurrence of the Kostolac group, it can be concluded that the Coţofeni-Kostolac group existed at the end of the IV and the first half of the III millennium BC, although it is possible that it continued even later in particular regions. The results for the oldest and the middle phase of the Kostolac cultural group at Gomolava range between 3038-2903 BC and 3108-2877 BC, while the Kostolac culture at the Streim and Vučedol sits was dated 3310-2920 BC, as is the approximate dating of settlements of this group in Pivnica (3042-2857 BC). All the dating of Kostolac group sites indicate that this cultural group occurred and developed in the period of the last quarter of the IV and the first half of the III millennium BC, which would chronologically assign the Coţofeni-Kostolac group in the Morava valley and Timočka Krajina to the end of the IV and the start of the III millennium BC, and to the ensuing period. [Projekat Ministarstva nauke Republike Srbije, br. 177020: Arheologija Srbije: Kulturni identitet, integracioni faktori, tehnološki procesi i uloga centralnog Balkana u razvoju evropske praistorije]
Crossbow fibulae from Gamzigrad (Romuliana)
Crossbow fibulae from Gamzigrad (Romuliana)
In the site of Gamzigrad - Felix Romuliana 31 crossbow fibulae (Zwiebelknopffibeln) were found. Except the finds from large Roman necropolis, the crossbow fibulae from Gamzigrad compose a large collection from one site in Serbia. The most of them were found in the exactly stratified archaeological units of two horizons of life in Romuliana from the beginning of 4th to the middle of 5th century. Two kinds of analysis of the crossbow fibulae from Romuliana were made: morphological - typological and statigraphical - chronological. Conclusions about the function and production of the crossbow fibulae have been made according the results of these analysis.
Cup-bearer of Constantius II and Early Christian inscriptions from the necropolis of St Synerotes in Sirmium
Cup-bearer of Constantius II and Early Christian inscriptions from the necropolis of St Synerotes in Sirmium
During the archaeological excavations performed in 1969/70 at the northern necropolis of Sirmium, around the Basilica of St Synerotes, a few sepulchral slabs with inscriptions and symbols of Early Christian character were discovered. The inscription on one slab, which reads: [±1 ? M]arturiu/[s p]incerna /[C]onstanti/[I]nperatori/[s(!)qui] vixsit(!) an/n[is] nonag/inta una cu/m matron/a sua Man/[- - -, shows that this is a tombstone of a certain Marturius, the cup-bearer of Constantius II. This emperor spent many months in Sirmium during 351-352 and 357-359, celebrating twice in this city the triumph over Quadi and Sarmatae, and intensifying not only the building of its infrastructure, but also of the sacral structures. As a fervent Christian of Arian orientation, he organised four ecclesiastical synods in Sirmium. On another slab, an inscription in Greek letters is written around a Christogram in a double circle, while on the third slab, decorated with floral motifs around a Christogram, the inscription is partly preserved. These tombstones are located south of the southern portico of Basilica of St Synerotes. [Projekat Ministarstva nauke Republike Srbije, br. 177007: Romanisation, urbanisation and transformation of urban centres of civil, military and residential character in Roman provinces in the territory of Serbia i br. 177005: City life in Antiquity: The expansion of cities and urban civilisation in the Balkans and the neighbouring areas from the Hellenistic to the Late Roman period]
De facto refuse or structured deposition?
De facto refuse or structured deposition?
The goal of this paper is to determine whether there are reasons to believe that inventories from the Late Neolithic Vinča culture houses do not represent systemic assemblages and to offer an interpretation of household assemblage variation. Pottery inventories from Vinča culture houses were compared to the ethnographically recorded range of variation in household inventory size. The discard equation was used to make projections of the accumulated assemblages from house assemblages for comparison with empirically observed accumulated assemblages. It is concluded that in general there is no reason to reject the assumption that Vinča household inventories reflect systemic assemblages. Moreover, the patterns of inventory variability can be meaningfully interpreted in social terms. [Projekat Ministarstva nauke Republike Srbije, br. 177008]
Dentalium beads - shells of fosillised sea molluscs at the Vinča-Belo brdo site
Dentalium beads - shells of fosillised sea molluscs at the Vinča-Belo brdo site
During excavation of the Vinča-Belo Brdo site a significant number of decorated items made from clay, stone, bone, and seashells or snail shells have been collected over the years. Amongst the decorated objects which could be classified as jewellery the majority are bracelets, pendants, and beads made from Spondylus and Glycymeris shells, as well as beads made from Dentalium shells. The appearance of these beads and the question of their origin have not yet been specifically considered within studies of prehistoric cultures in the central Balkans. Furthermore, they have rarely been illustrated and mentioned in archaeological site inventories, which we presume has not been because of their poor representation, but rather because of their being unfamiliar. The aim of this work is therefore to: a) systematize data about Dentalium beads from all phases of excavation of the Belo Brdo site in Vinča; b) to show the importance of this kind of jewellery in the study of resources around the Vinča settlement; and c) to indicate the wider chronological perspective and the significance of studying Dentalium beads within the prehistory of the central Balkans. Dentalium is a carnivorous Scaphopoda sea mollusc, uncommon and insufficiently studied. Representatives of this class of Scaphopoda have been found on Serbian territory in the Badenian sediments, deposited fifteen million years ago. Badenian sediments were discovered around Loznica, Belgrade, Aranđelovac, Golubac, Zaječar, and Negotin. The region of Belgrade and the surrounding area had been covered by a warm, shallow sea of normal salination. On the territory of Belgrade, offsprings of the Badenian sediments, rich in fossils, have been discovered in the city centre (Tašmajdan, Kalemegdan), as well as in many surrounding places (Rakovica, Kaluđerica, Leštani, and Jajinci) (fig. 2). Scaphopod shells found at the Vinča-Belo Brdo archaeological site are usually transversally broken. Judging by the basic appearance of the shells and their ornamentation (longitudinal stripes and rising lines) on better preserved examples (fig. 3: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) the Fissidentalium badense type is distinct. The ornamentation of the shell is in most cases well preserved, save that in a few examples the longitudinal stripes are broken (fig. 3:22) or the outer surface of the shell has been abraded/dissolved by a physical-chemical agent. Dentalium shells have been used for making jewellery from prehistoric times right up to the present day. The reason for this lies in the regular shape of the shell, which is completely unchanged, or, with a little effort, can be used as one longer or (by breaking it laterally) a larger number of shorter cylindrical beads. On the territory of Serbia today, pre-Neolithic beads have not been known to date. Neither have they been cited in published materials from early-Neolithic to mid-Neolithic Starčevo sites. On the basis of literature, we would say that they appear for the first time in late Neolithic/early Eneolithic times, that is, in the period of the Vinča culture. After that time, it seems that Dentalium beads were mostly used during the Bronze Age, judging from the grave inventories of the necropolis in Mokrin (Moriš culture), where there are findings in around 10% of graves. These are formed from fossilized shells. The beads are usually strung together and were worn around the neck. Usually they were strung in combination with beads and pendants made from other materials (for example teeth, bones, kaolin, stone, bronze etc). Since excavation of the Vinča-Belo Brdo site began in 1908, until 2009, 362 Dentalium beads were found. With the exception of one case, beads were formed from fossilized shells. Most fossilized shells were used by the inhabitants of Belo Brdo in the form in which they were found. Very rarely, traces of workmanship on the edges of beads can be noticed under magnification - carving and polishing (fig. 3: 21), showing that beads were sometimes finished off, probably when natural breaks were not rounded off but were too sharp, or when they the shells were broken to obtain smaller pieces. Beads are located in all levels of Vinča culture settlements, with depths of between ▼0.7-▼9.0 m (fig. 4a). However, at depths of between ▼6.5 and ▼7.3 m, only one bead has been found (at ▼7.0 m) which indicates a reduced interest in Dentalium beads, to the extent of the cessation of their use in the corresponding period. It is not clear whether the beads were worn individually or in a string. Most beads were found individually, but this does not necessarily mean that they were not worn in strings, since these may have been dismantled prior to their deposit. Twenty-nine beads found together indicates that at least some were worn strung (▼8.2 m), as do two pairs of connected beads (with the narrow end of one placed in the wider end of the second bead (fig. 3: 24). Regarding the question of how inhabitants of the Belo Brdo settlement found Dentalium shells, there is no doubt that they were collected in deposits of fossils situated in the wider surroundings of Vinča. The same kind of scaphopod Fissidentalium badense is present among shells used as beads, as well as in Miocene deposits in the area. The taphonomic characteristics of archaeological examples do not differ from samples collected in fossil deposits. It is interesting that inhabitants of the Belo Brdo collected other fossils too, sometimes bringing them to the settlement, but rarely using them for jewellery. Undoubtedly Dentalium shells were accepted as »ready made« beads, but it is also possible that the Dentalia were chosen because they were »in fashion«, since the Belo Brdo inhabitants may have known that they were used in other parts of the pre-historic world.

Pages